Author Michael C. Harris discusses the battle of Germantown and his new book about the battle.

Germantown a Military History of the Battle for Philadelphia, October 4th, 1777. Savas Beatie, 2020.

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A down on his luck Prussian officer makes his way to America.  There he obtains appointment as the army's Inspector General and trains the soldiers in formal military drill.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Drillmaster of Valley Forge: The Baron de Steuben and the Making of the American Army, by Paul Lockhart.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Regulations for the order and discipline of the troops of the United States, by Friedrich von Steuben: https://archive.org/details/2575061R.nlm.nih.gov

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By the end of 1777, British leaders in London express serious doubts about winning the war in America.  After hearing news of Burgoyne's surrender and the French Alliance with America, Britain must make drastic changes.  It declares war on France, then redeploys much of its army and navy to other parts of the Empire.  The new North American Commander, Sir Henry Clinton must hold his forces in a defensive posture.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Howe Brothers & the American Revolution, by Ira D. Gruber.

Online Recommendation of the Week: (Anonymous) “Gentleman, for many years a resident in America” A letter to Lord George Germaine, giving an account of the origin of the dispute between Great Britain and the colonies, London: Printed for T. Whieldon and Waller, 1778. https://archive.org/details/cihm_27479

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In 1778, the American Commissioners in Paris convince French King Louis XVI to sign a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity and commerce, recognizing the US as an independent nation.  The revelation of this alliance forces Britain to declare war on France.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Ten Key Campaigns of the American Revolution, Mark Edward Lender, ed.

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Treaties of 1778, and Allied Documents: https://archive.org/details/treatiesof1778al00fran

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Washington's Continentals suffer a lack of food, clothing and shelter as it struggles to get through the winter at Valley Forge.  At the same time, it must contest a British move into Darby in search of forage.  Captain "light horse Harry" Lee distinguishes himself during this time.  Americans also capture a British ship on the Delaware river.  Washington fights with Congress to get what he needs to maintain and train his army.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Washington's Secret War: The Hidden History of Valley Forge, by Thomas Fleming.

Online Recommendation of the Week: The History of Valley Forge, by Henry Woodman: https://archive.org/details/historyofvalleyf00wood

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An interview with author James Kirby Martin who recently wrote about the Saratoga Campaign in the new book The 10 Key Campaigns of the America Revolution.

Visit my site at https://blog.AmRevPodcast.com for a transcript of our discussion, as well as pictures, maps, and links to more books by James Kirby Martin.

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Following the victory at Saratoga, political leaders consider the idea of replacing General George Washington with General Horatio Gates as Commander in Chief.  Several ambitious officers within the Continental Army support the move.

Congress appoints Gates to head the Board of War, where he can make strategy and give orders to Washington.  Very quickly other top officers in the army make clear that these changes are unacceptable.  Gates also fails to impress by  organizing a new invasion of Quebec, which must be aborted before it even began.

After several months, Congress ends up backing Washington as commander and drops any idea of replacing him.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Cabal!: The Plot Against General Washington, by Mark E. Lender.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Lender discusses the Cabal with Brady Crytzer on the Dispatches Podcast: https://jardispatches.podbean.com/e/e34-mark-edward-lender-cabal-the-plot-against-general-washington

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In the weeks following the battle of Germantown, the Continentals camp at Whitemarsh, only a few miles from the British lines.  There, they set up defenses and prepare for another battle.  Washington deploys Alexander Hamilton to see Horatio Gates in NY, in an attempt to get Gates to send reinforcements.  The army also tries and cashiers Gen. Adam Stephen following accusations from Germantown.  Congress orders the Continental Navy to sink several ships on the Delaware river to prevent their capture.

After several weeks, the British army advance on the Continentals at Whitemarsh, but find the lines too well defended. After the British return to Philadelphia, the Continentals move into winter quarters at Valley Forge.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Alexander Hamilton, by Ron Chernow.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Whitemarsh; an address delivered before the Pennsylvania society of Sons of the revolution at Whitemarsh, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, June 19, 1909, by Charles Henry Jones,  https://archive.org/details/whitemarshaddres00jone_0 

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With the British Army in Philadelphia, the Continental Congress moves to Lancaster, Pa, and then to York.  There, they have to fight off defeatism while many delegates, including President John Hancock, return home.  

The Congress does finally finish its proposed Articles of Confederation, which it sends to the state for ratification.  News of the victory at Saratoga help raise everyone's spirits.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Continental Congress, by Edmund Cody Burnette.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Articles of Confederation, as adopted Nov. 15, 1777, transcript:  https://www.ourdocuments.gov/print_friendly.php?flash=false&page=transcript&doc=3&title=Transcript+of+Articles+of+Confederation

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The Hessians under Col. von Donop fail to capture Fort Mercer following an aggressive attack.  The British focus on Fort Mifflin, subjecting the garrison to a massive artillery barrage for days.  Eventually the surviving defenders make a nighttime escape to Fort Mercer.

Following the loss of Fort Mifflin and expecting a second assault on Fort Mercer, the garrison there abandons the fort and moves to rejoin the main Continental Army.  Any remaining American naval vessels on the river are burned to prevent their capture by the enemy.  With that, the Delaware River is freed from impediments

Another force under General Lafayette attacks a Hessian outpost at Gloucester, inflicting more casualties.  It reminds the British that its outposts are still threatened.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Fight for the Delaware, by Samuel Stelle Smith

Online Recommendation of the Week: Ann C. Whitall, the heroine of Red Bank by Isabella and Wallace McGeorge: https://archive.org/details/anncwhitallheroi04mcge

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An interview with author Kurt Avard, about his new novel First, Do No Harm.

In 17th Century Vienna, a local watchman discovers a dead body outside of Stephansdom Cathedral.  He soon realizes that the black plague is sweeping across the city.  He must determine: Is there a medical cure that will stop this illness from devastating the population? or is the plague the result of other-worldly beings bringing God’s wrath to a sinful people? 

Author Kurt Avard takes readers on a journey through a society still emerging from medieval Europe to embrace enlightenment.  The struggle between religion and science breaks into open warfare as a determined group searches for a way to end this terrible suffering.   First, Do No Harm releases on September 25, 2020.  Pre-order your book on Amazon today. 

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After capturing Philadelphia in 1777, the British spend weeks trying to open the Delaware River so that the navy can supply the occupying army.  The Americans spent years installing barriers and forts to make the approach difficult and dangerous.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Pennsylvania Navy: Defending the Delaware 1775-1781, by John W. Jackson.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Ford, Worthington C. Defences of Philadelphia in 1777, Brooklyn: Historical Printing Club, 1897: https://archive.org/details/defencesofphilad00ford

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After failing to push through the American Lines, British General Burgoyne holds out for a relief force from New York City.  Although the British attack Kingston, NY as a distraction, the Continental Army keeps its focus on Burgoyne's army.  Finally, with no options left, General Burgoyne agrees to a surrender. 

General Gates agrees to generous terms, promising to send Burgoyne's army back to England.  However, the Continental Congress refuses to comply with those terms and keeps the army prisoner for the remainder of the war.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Generals of Saratoga: John Burgoyne and Horatio Gates, by Max M. Mintz, 1990.

Online Recommendation of the Week: HistoryAuthorTalks.com

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The British under General Johnny Burgoyne make a desperate push against the Americans under the command of General Horatio Gates on Bemis Heights, in upstate New York.

General Benedict Arnold defies Gates' orders to stay away.  Instead, he leads the Americans to victory before being shot down near the end of the day.  The British are forced to withdraw and remain trapped.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution, by Nathaniel Philbrick, 2016

Online Recommendation of the Week: Eelking, Max von, (translated by Stone, William L.) Memoirs of Major General Riedesel, Vol. 1, J. Munsell, 1868: https://archive.org/details/memoirsmajorgen00eelkgoog

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British General Sir Henry Clinton makes a desperate attempt to distract the Continental Army facing General Burgoyne in the upper Hudson Valley.  Clinton captures Forts Clinton and Montgomery but fails to cause any of the Continentals under Horatio Gates to focus on Burgoyne.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Logusz, Michael O. With Musket & Tomahawk: The West Point-Hudson Valley Campaign in the Wilderness War of 1777, Carrell Books, 2016

Online Recommendation of the Week: Clay, Steven E. Staff Ride Handbook for the Saratoga Campaign, 13 June to 8 November 1777, Combat Studies Institute Press, 2018: https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/educational-services/staff-rides/Staff-Ride-Handbook-Saratoga-Campaign.pdf

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Special Episode: Discussion with Dr. Ronald S. Gibbs on Medicine and the American Revolution

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Dr. Gibbs' Novel: The Long Shot: The Secret History of 1776 (2020).

Dr. Gibbs' Website https://ronaldsgibbs.com

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On October 4, 1777 the Continental Army attacks the main British Army at Germantown, several days after the British occupied Philadelphia.

General Washington attempts a complex four pronged assault on the British camp.  The attack falls part as units get lost in the heavy fog and the attackers turn their focus on taking a stone house on the edge of the battlefield.

This gives British forces time to rally and chase the Americans from the field.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Harris, Michael C. Germantown: A Military History of the Battle for Philadelphia, October 4, 1777, Savas Beatie, 2020.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Lambdin, Alfred C. “Battle of Germantown.” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 1, no. 4, 1877, pp. 368–403. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20084306

Also: FounderOfTheDay.com https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCZ3Gi2ZE_1piyX4aZ83cLbg

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As General Burgoyne's British army faces off against General Gates' Continentals near Saratoga, Colonel John Brown leads an attack on the British rear at Fort Ticonderoga.  The Continentals fail to capture the fort, but take 300 prisoners and thrown the British supply lines into disarray.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Don Troiani's Campaign to Saratoga - 1777: The Turning Point of the Revolutionary War in Paintings, Artifacts, and Historical Narrative, 2019 by Eric H. Schnitzer & Don Troiani.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Howe, Archibald Murray, Colonel John Brown of Pittsfield Massachusetts, Boston: W. B. Clarke company, 1908. https://archive.org/details/coloneljohnbrow00howegoog

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Public Release August 9, 2020

The British army under General Burgoyne finds itself increasingly isolated.  On the American side, General Gates replaces General Schuyler as commander of the northern army.  Gates picks a fight with General Arnold while setting up defenses to take on the British.

The British assault at Freeman's Farm forces the Americans to pull back to their defensive lines in heights, but also leaves the British army weaker and unsure of its ability to break the American lines.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Battle of Saratoga, by Rupert Furneaux

Online Recommendation of the Week: The March to Saratoga, by Harrison Bird https://archive.org/details/marchtosaratogag008320mbp

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As the British Army plans its final assault on Philadelphia, the continentals leave an army in the British rear to harass them.  This army, led by General Anthony Wayne, took a position near Paoli Tavern.  A British force led by General Charles Grey attacked the continentals at night, using bayonets to dispatch the enemy silently.  Most of the Continentals fled into the dark woods.  

Following the destruction of the army in their rear, the British crossed the Schuylkill river and took possession of Philadelphia.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Battle of Paoli, by Thomas J. McGuire (2006).

Online Recommendation of the Week: Futhey, J. Smith “The Massacre of Paoli” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 1, no. 3, 1877, pp. 285–319: https://archive.org/details/jstor-20084293

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Following their loss at Brandywine, Congress reevaluates its officers as Washington prepares to rally for the next confrontation.  The Continentals and British advance on each other near White Horse Tavern.  As they prepare for a major battle, a terrible rain storm floods the field and damages most of the gunpowder.  General Washington uses the opportunity to pull back across the Schuylkill river for a final defense of Philadelphia.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Philadelphia Campaign 1777-1779, by Stephen R. Taaffe.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Ecelbarger, Gary “Aggressive Minded Gamblers: Washington, Howe, and the Days between Battles, September 12-16, 1777, Journal of the American Revolution, March 10, 2020: https://allthingsliberty.com/2020/03/aggressive-minded-gamblers-washington-howe-and-the-days-between-battles-september-12-16-1777

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Public Release: July 19, 2020

General Washington sets his defenses along Brandywine Creek, hoping to prevent General Howe's advance on Philadelphia.  

Howe sent his Hessians under General von Knyphausen against the Continental lines.  At the same time Howe marched his regulars further north where he crossed the creek and marched against the Continental right flank.

The Continentals put up a good fight against the British assault before being forced to retreat.  A rearguard action by Nathanael Green allowed the Continental army to make its escape.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Harris, Michael C. Brandywine: A Military History of the Battle that Lost Philadelphia but Saved America, September 11, 1777

Online Recommendation of the Week: Some account of the British army, under the command of General Howe; and of the battle of Brandywine, on the memorable September 11th, 1777, and the adventures of that day, by Joseph Townsend. https://archive.org/details/someaccountofbri00town

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The British Fleet deploys an army of over 15,000 British and Hessian soldiers at Head of Elk, Maryland.  It takes the army several days to unload and to recover from the long journey.  The Americans move to Wilmington Delaware as they scouted out the enemy.  The armies clash several days later at Cooch's Bridge before the British move into Pennsylvania.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The British Invasion of Delaware, Aug-Sep 1777, by Gerald J. Kauffman and Michael R. Gallagher

Online Recommendation of the Week: Proceedings at the unveiling of the monument at Cooch's Bridge, Historical Society of Delaware https://archive.org/details/proceedingsatunv00wilm

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Over the summer of 1777, native tribes along the western frontier attack American settlements.  In August, they attack Fort Henry in Virginia.  After a sustained attack, the garrison receives reinforcements and forces the attackers to abandon the siege.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Year of the Hangman: George Washington's Campaign Against the Iroquois, by Glenn Williams

Online Recommendation of the Week: History of the early settlement and Indian wars of Western Virginia  https://archive.org/details/historyofearlyse00deha, by Wills De Haas 

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German troops under Col. Friedrich Baum are defeated by the militia raised by General John Stark  near Bennington.  Later that same day, Stark's forces defeat a relief column under the command of Col. Von Breymann.

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Book Recommendation of the Week:  The Battle of Bennington: Soldiers & Civilians, by Michael P. Gabriel.

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Battle of Bennington,  by Henry Davis Hall: https://archive.org/details/battleofbenningt00hall

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With a demoralized and shrinking Continental Army facing General Burgoyne's invasion of upstate New York, New Englanders turn to a disaffected former Continental colonel, John Stark, to form a militia army.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Stark; The Life and Wars of John Stark, French and Indian War Ranger, Revolutionary War General, by Richard & John Polhemus 

Online Recommendation of the Week:  eBook: A Life of General John Stark of New Hampshire, by Howard P. Moore. https://archive.org/details/lifeofgeneraljoh00moor

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On August 22, 1777, the Americans launch two independent raids on British defenses around New York City.  General Sullivan leads an attack on Staten Island, while General Putnam orders a raid on Setauket, Long Island.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Lost British Forts of Long Island, by David M Griffin

Online Recommendation of the Week:  The Military Services and Public Life of Major-General John Sullivan of the American Revolutionary Army, by Thomas Coffin Amory:  https://archive.org/details/militaryservice00amorgoog

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General Nicholas Herkimer leads a militia relief force to save Fort Stanwix.  A native an militia force form St. Leger's Army ambushes the relief force in the bloody battle of Oriskany.  The relief force retreats and the siege continues.

Days later, General Benedict Arnold leads a relief force to the fort.  After the enemy believes exaggerated numbers of Arnold's army, the force under St. Leger flees back to Lake Ontario.  Arnold lifts the siege and keeps the fort in American hands.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Rebellion in the Mohawk Valley: The St. Leger Expedition of 1777, by Gavin K. Watt 

Online Recommendation of the Week:  Orderly book of Sir John Johnson during the Oriskany Campaign, 1776-1777, by William Leete Stone (ed): https://archive.org/details/cu31924032310629

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As General Burgoyne Launches his Campaign from Canada into upstate New York, General Barry St. Leger leads a second army made up primarily of Native Americans and Loyalists through Western New York's Mohawk Valley.  St. Leger planned to capture Fort Stanwix, then link up with Burgoyne's army at Albany.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: With Musket and Tomahawk. Volume II: The Mohawk Valley Campaign in the Wilderness War of 1777, by Michael O. Logusz.

Online Recommendation of the Week: ebook, Border Wars of the American Revolution, Vol. 1, by William Leets Stone: https://archive.org/details/borderwarsamrev01stonrich

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General William Howe gets a late start to the 1777 fighting campaign, not leaving New York City until the end of July.  He opts to sail all they way to Virginia and then up the Chesapeake Bay to land in Maryland, with Philadelphia as his goal.

Weeks of the British Army at sea leave the Continentals perplexed and guessing at what the ultimate goal would be.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Philadelphia Campaign: Volume One: Brandywine and the Fall of Philadelphia, by Thomas J. McGuire 

Online Recommendation of the Week:  The Civil War 1861-1865 (Podcast) CivilWarPodcast.org

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The Marquis de Lafayette, a young french noble with dreams of fighting for liberty travels to America to become a major general in the Continental Army.  In doing so, he must overcome skepticism and resistance from both sides of the Atlantic.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Marquis: Lafayette Reconsidered, by Laura Auricchio

Online Recommendation of the Week: ebook, The Life of General Lafayette, by John Quincy Adams: https://archive.org/details/lifeofgenerallaf00adam

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General Burgoyne's army reaches the Hudson river after slogging through the wilderness for most of August 1777.  Burgoyne relied on his Indian allies to keep the enemy from setting up ambushes or otherwise interfering with progress.

After an Indian returned with the scalp of Jane McCrea, the finance of one of his officers, Burgoyne had to put restrictions on the Indians.  Most warriors responded by leaving the army and returning home.  The story of Jane McCrea became a rallying point for Americans against the barbarous tactic of the British.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution, by Alan Taylor 

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Life of Jane McCrea, by David Wilson: https://archive.org/details/lifeofjanemccrea01wils

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After the British occupy Newport, Rhode Islanders kidnap the British commander, General Richard Prescott in hopes of exchanging him for General Charles Lee.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Kidnapping the Enemy, by Christian McBurney

Online Recommendation of the Week: Video, Christian McBurney discusses his book: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fuHjgtXIqFA&t=180s

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 As the Fort Ticonderoga garrison escapes the attacking British under General Burgoyne, American General Arthur St. Clair leaves a rearguard at Hubbardton to prevent the British from advancing on the retreating army.

Colonel Seth Warner commands the rearguard, which is still at Hubbardton when the British advance guard, under the command of  General Simon Fraser, catches up to them.  A brutal wilderness battle rages for hours in the wooded mountains.  Finally German reinforcements under the command of General Friedrich von Riedesel reach the battle and force the remaining Americans to flee into the woods.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Battle of Hubbardton: The Rear Guard Action That Saved America, by Bruce M Venter

Online Recommendation of the Week: Animated Map of the Battle of Hubbardton, by Seth Warner's Regiment https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pdCdykHbP4s&t=11s 

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The American garrison at Fort Ticonderoga make a confused nighttime escape from Fort Ticonderoga, just in time to avoid capture.  The bulk of the army marches off into the woods while the sick, wounded and supplies are loaded aboard ships. 

The next morning, the British fleet chases after the ships, catching up with them at Skenesborough.  The American fleet is captured or destroyed.  A few soldiers escape to Fort Anne.  The British pursue with a small advance force. The Americans counter attack before British reinforcements arrive.  When the British reinforcements get to the scene, the Americans withdraw and destroy Fort Ann.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: With Musket and Tomahawk, The Saratoga Campaign and the Wilderness War of 1777, by Michael O. Logusz

Online Recommendation of the Week: The British Invasion from the North: The Campaigns of Generals Carleton and Burgoyne, With the Journal of Lieut. William Digby, by James Phinney Baxter: https://archive.org/details/britishinvasion02digbgoog

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General Burgoyne assembles his army in Canada.  His army of thousands, led by Simon Fraser, William Phillips, Baron von Rediesel assembles in the early summer of 1777 to march on Fort Ticonderoga, then down the Hudson valley to cut of New England and reestablish British authority.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Where a Man Can Go: Major General William Phillips, British Royal Artillery, 1731-1781, by Robert P. Davis.

Online Recommendation of the Week: History of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, by Francis Duncan: https://archive.org/details/historyroyalreg02duncgoog

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After the British fail to take the Fort Ticonderoga in 1776, the Continentals squander the winter fighting among themselves.  When General Burgoyne's army moves to surround and assault General St. Clair realizes his garrison is a sitting duck.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War, by Richard M. Ketchum

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Paradocs Podcast http://theparadocs.com

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Throughout the Revolution, disease was a far greater killer of soldiers than the enemy.  This week, we discuss how people suffered from disease during the Revolutionary War, how it impacted the course of the war, and what they did to fight back.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Medicine and the American Revolution: How Diseases and Their Treatments Affected the Colonial Army, by Oscar Reiss. 

Online Recommendation of the Week: The American Revolution: from the commencement to the disbanding of the American army; given in the form of a daily journal, with the exact dates of all the important events; also, a biographical sketch of all the most prominent generals, by James Thacher: https://archive.org/details/americanrevoluti00thacuoft

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Congress returns from its removal to Baltimore after the fear of British occupation of Philadelphia passes.  The new session approves a new American flag on June 14, 1777.  Congress also promotes new generals.  It must deal with an influx of French officer applicants that it does not want, but also does not want to offend France.  Finally, after several months, Congress once again leaves Philadelphia after the British threaten another occupation.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Robert Morris Financier of the American Revolution, Charles Rappleye

Online Recommendation of the Week: https://www.chamberofcommerce.org/usflag/history/flagday.html 

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The British attempt to lure the Continental Army out of the Watchung mountains by marching back into New Jersey.  General Washington refuses to engage.  After the British withdraw, the Americans move down out of the mountains.  General Howe moves his army back to cut off Washington's path back into the mountains.  A fierce defense led by General Lord Stirling slows the British advance long enough for the Americans to move back into the mountains.  Unwilling to engage them there, the British return to New York.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Every Insult and Indignity: The Life Genius and Legacy of Major Patrick Ferguson, by Ricky Roberts and Bryan Brown  

Online Recommendation of the Week: Major-General the Earl of Stirling; an Essay in Biography, by Ludwig Schumacher:  https://archive.org/details/majorgeneralearl00schu

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A patriot force under the command of Colonel Return Jonathan Meigs raids British occupied Long Island from Connecticut.  The Americans capture loyalist prisoners and destroy British supplies before returning back to Connecticut.  The patriots considered the raid a great success.  The British gave up attempting to maintain a permanent outpost on the eastern part of Long Island.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Quiet Patriot, Colonel Return Jonathan Meigs: With Meigs's 1775 Journal of the Quebec Expedition, by Richard A. Mason, 2010.

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Life and Letters of Samuel Holden Parsons, by Charles Hall: https://archive.org/details/lifeandletterss00hallgoog

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Patriots invade East Florida in hopes of capturing the colony and eliminating the British threat from St. Augustine.  The small and divided force is massacred at Thomas Creek as they retreat back to Georgia.  Meanwhile the fighting between Georgia's political leader, Button Gwinnett and Continental General Lachlan McIntosh leads to a duel.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Lachlan McIntosh and the Politics of Revolutionary Georgia, by Harvey Jackson, III.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Button! by Stephen Colbert and Lin-Manuel Miranda https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uhFeQSBZUSk

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Continental Navy Captain Lambert Wickes delivers Benjamin Franklin to France, then attacks British shipping in British waters, nearly provoking a war between Britain and France.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Lambert Wickes Sea Raider and Diplomat: The Story of a Navel Captain of the Revolution, by William Bell Clark, and The Golden Voyage: The Life and Times of William Bingham, 1752-1804, by Robert C. Alberts

Online Recommendation of the Week: Philadelphia Free Library Interlibrary Loan Program: https://libwww.freelibrary.org/illiad

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Benjamin Franklin travels to France to join the American Delegation.  He arrives in December 1776 and immediately gains pop star status with the French people.  Getting the French government to go along would take longer.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America, by Stacy Schiff, 2005. 

Online Recommendation of the Week: Sybil Ludington (The History Chicks Podcast) http://thehistorychicks.com/minicastsybil-ludington

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An army of regulars led by New York Governor and General William Tryon, raid an American supply depot at Danbury, Connecticut.  American resistance led by General David Wooster and Benedict Arnold resulted it the battle of Ridgefield and many British casualties.

General Wooster died in the fighting, while General Arnold's performance finally led to his promotion to major general.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Call to Arms: The Patriot Militia in the 1777 British Raid on Danbury, Connecticut, by Stephen Darley

Online Recommendation of the Week: Cockpit of the Revolution: An account of Tryon's raid on Danbury in April, 1777, also the battle of Ridgefield and the career of Gen. David Wooster, by James Case: https://archive.org/details/accountoftryonsr00case

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A large British force attacks General Lincoln at Bound Brook New Jersey.  Lord Cornwallis hopes to capture the relatively isolated Continental force that is posted to defend Washington's southern flank.  The British scatter the surprised Americans who mostly flee the scene.  Washington sends a column under General Greene to retake Bound Brook and harass the British column as it returns to its base that same day.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: War of the Revolution, by Christopher Ward

Online Recommendation of the Week: Cockpit of the Revolution: The War for Independence in New Jersey, by Leonard Lundin: 
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The British in New York City send a raiding party up the Hudson River to attack an American supply depot.  After two days of fighting, the Americans drive off the British and take back the town.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Chaining the Hudson: Fight for the River in the American Revolution, by Lincoln Diamant 

Online Recommendation of the Week: History that Doesn't Suck Podcast: https://www.historythatdoesntsuck.com

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Over the fall and winter of 1776-1777, General Howe proposes his strategic plans to officials in London.  Those officials deny most of Howe's requests for reinforcements, thus causing him to reduce his plans.  At the same time, officials in London meet with General Burgoyne and agree to have him lead an invasion of upstate New York from Canada, thus angering several more senior generals who wanted that command.  No one bothers to tell the North American Commander, Howe, that he must support Burgoyne's invasion, so he plans to put his army aboard ships and sail away for an attack on Philadelphia.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Logistics and the Failure of the British Army in America, 1775-1783, by Arthur Bowler.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts Report on the manuscripts of Mrs. Stopford-Sackville, of Drayton House, Northamptonshire Vol. 2: https://archive.org/details/reportonmanuscri02grea_0

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Originally published January 12, 2020

Fearing an imminent British invasion of Philadelphia, the Continental Congress adjourns in December 1776 with a resolution to meet a week later in Baltimore, Maryland.  Congress holds session in Baltimore for three months.  The delegates vote to print more money, promote more generals and generally continue the work of government.  At the end of February 1777, with the danger passed, they return to Philadelphia.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Moses Robinson and the Founding of Vermont, by Robert A. Mello.

Online Recommendation of the Week: A vindication of his public character in the station of director-general of the military hospitals and physician in chief to the American army, anno 1776, by John Morgan: https://archive.org/details/vindicationofhis00morg

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Loyalists in Florida with the aide of Seminole Warriors, raid the Georgia borders in an attempt to roll back patriot control.  Meanwhile Button Gwinnett becomes President of Georgia and uses the opportunity to attack his political opponents.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Georgia-Florida Contest in the American Revolution, 1776-1778, by Martha Searcy

Online Recommendation of the Week: https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org

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Thousands of American Prisoners suffer and die in New York City prisons and prison ships during the Revolutionary War.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Forgotten Patriots: The Untold Story of American Prisoners During the Revolutionary War, by Edwin G. Burrows.

Online Recommendation of the Week: List of prisoners from the Jersey: http://www.usmm.org/revdead.html

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Continental forces under General Heath attempt to recapture Fort Independence, just north of New York City in January 1777.  The Hessian Garrison forces the Continentals to withdrawal.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Benjamin Lincoln and the American Revolution, by David Mattern

Online Recommendation of the Week: Memoirs of William Heath: https://archive.org/details/memoirsofmajorge1798heat

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Following the Battle of Princeton, New Jersey militia keep the British Army hunkered down in a couple of North Jersey cities near New York.  Their efforts keep patriot control of New Jersey as Washington's Continental Army rests and rebuilds for the spring campaign.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Unknown American Revolution, by Garry Nash

Online Recommendation of the Week: Documents Relating to the Revolutionary History of the State of New Jersey: Extracts from American Newspapers, Vol 1: https://archive.org/details/documentsrelatin01stry

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The Continentals surprise the British by pulling out of Trenton on the night of January 2, 1777 and marching up a back road to attack the British rear at Princeton the next morning.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Second to No Man but the Commander in Chief, Hugh Mercer: American Patriot by Michael Cecere 

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Life of General Hugh Mercer, by John Goolrick https://archive.org/details/lifeofgeneralhug00gool

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General Cornwallis is tasked to deal with the Americans who captured the Hessian outpost at Trenton.  Cornwallis assembles and marches his army directly to Trenton in a matter of days.  As his army moves from Princeton to Trenton, American delaying tactics prevent him from arriving until nearly the evening of July 2, 1777.  After capturing the town, Cornwallis opts to wait until morning to attack the main American force on the other side of Assunpink Creek.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Road to Assunpink Creek, by David Price

Online Recommendation of the Week: Rosbrugh, a Tale of the Revolution, by John Clyde: https://archive.org/details/rosbrughtaleofre00clyd

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After its victory at Trenton, the Continental Army retreats with its prisoners and equipment back to Pennsylvania.  After discovering that the Pennsylvania militia had crossed into New Jersey, Washington opts to cross back again and reoccupy Trenton.  There he will await General Cornwallis and the British Army.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Winter Soldiers, by Richard Ketchum

Online Recommendation of the Week: The 8th Virginia Regiment https://www.8thvirginia.com

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The Continental Army led by General Washington attacks the Hessian outpost at Trenton on December 26, 1776.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Ten Crucial Days: Washington's Vision for Victory Unfolds, by William L. Kidder (2019)

Online Recommendation of the Week: Ten Crucial Days Website tencrucialdays.org

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December 25, 1776: Washington assembles enough troops to attempt an attack on the British, days before the enlistments of most of his remaining soldiers expire.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Washington's Crossing, by David Hackett Fischer

Online Recommendation of the Week: Washington's Crossing State Park: www.washingtoncrossingpark.org

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In late December 1776, General Washington sends a small force into New Jersey to harass the Hessian garrisons.  The force under Colonel Samuel Griffin engages the Hessians under Colonel Carl Von Donop.  The fighting on Iron Works Hill causes Von Donop to redeploy his Hessians to Mount Holly New Jersey.  This leaves the smaller Hessian garrison at Trenton isolated over Christmas.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: A Crisis of Peace: George Washington, the Newburgh Conspiracy, and the Fate of the American Revolution, by David Head due to be released Dec. 3, 2019

Online Recommendation of the Week: revolutionarywar.us

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As the Continental Army struggle to keep itself alive at the end of 1776, Thomas Paine writes The American Crisis to rally Americans to fight the British and Hessians.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Thomas Paine: Collected Writings: Common Sense / The Crisis / Rights of Man / The Age of Reason / Pamphlets, Articles, and Letters, by Eric Foner (ed)

Online Recommendation of the Week: Project Gutenberg's "The Writings of Thomas Paine" https://www.gutenberg.org/files/31270/31270-h/31270-h.htm

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Over the winter of 1776-77, Patriots attempt to capture Fort Cumberland and bring Nova Scotia into the rebellion.  Also, the British capture Newport Rhode Island to use as a winter port for the navy.  Generals Clinton and Percy return to Britain.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Siege of Fort Cumberland, 1776: An Episode in the American Revolution, by Ernest Clarke 

Online Recommendation of the Week: Memoir of Jonathan Eddy on Archive.org.

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As the British Army sweeps across New Jersey, it captures Signer Richard Stockton and General Charles Lee.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Charles Lee: Self Before Country, by Dominick Mazzagetti

Online Recommendation of the Week: Facebook Group American History Fanatics: https://www.facebook.com/groups/887419261386444

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Washington completes his retreat to Pennsylvania by early December 1776.  The British slowly force the march but do not attempt to capture the Continentals.  Washington's subordinate generals fail to come to his assistance.  He discovers his own personal aid has lost faith in his leadership.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Long Retreat: The Calamitous Defense of New Jersey, 1776 by Arthur S Lefkowitz.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Correspondence of Charles, first Marquis Cornwallis, Vol. 1 By Charles Ross (ed). 

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James Aitken, a petty criminal in Britain, schemes to burn down all of the Naval portyards in England to cripple the British Navy.  He hopes to become a hero of the American cause.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: John the Painter: Terrorist of the American Revolution, by Jessica Warner

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Life of James Aitken Commonly Called John the Painter, by John Wilkes.

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The Continental Congress makes no real progress approving Articles of Confederation and has trouble supporting its own army.  It sends a delegation to France to get an alliance with France.  Congress sends Benjamin Franklin to join Arthur Lee and Silas Deane in France, with all three receiving official commissions.  Before the commissions arrive, Deane has great difficulty getting any French aid to America.  Lee's interference even raises doubts in the French government about whether Deane has any legitimate authority at all to negotiate on behalf of Congress.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution, by Jonathan Dull

Online Recommendation of the Week: The Crossing and Ten Crucial Days - The Musical https://www.thecrossingmusical.com

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A British and Hessian force led by Lord Cornwallis storms Fort Lee in New Jersey, forcing the Continental Army led by George Washington to flee further south.  The two armies spend days moving through cold rain and muddy roads.  The Continentals continue to retreat back toward Philadelphia as the British take Newark.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Day is Ours by William Dwyer

Online Recommendation of the Week: Revolutionary War New Jersey, https://RevolutionaryWarNewJersey

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General Washington ignores British General Howe's repeated hints that he needs to evacuate Fort Washington.  Instead, he leaves the decision up to General Nathanael Greene.  The British capture the Fort along with 3000 officers and men, the Continental Army's greatest loss in the first part of the war.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Washington's General: Nathanael Greene and the Triumph of the American Revolution, by Terry Golway 

Online Recommendation of the Week: The British History Podcast https://www.thebritishhistorypodcast.com

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The British under General Howe continue to push back the Continentals under General Washington, slowly nudging them off Manhattan island, but refusing to surround them or force a major battle.  Eventually the Continentals are forced to retreat to New Jersey.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Narrative of a Revolutionary War Soldier, by Joseph Plumb Martin

Online Recommendation of the Week: PBS Liberty: https://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty

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Benedict Arnold avoids almost certain capture near Valcour Island with a daring night move.  The British fleet catches up with him, but Arnold is able to ground most of his ships and escape overland back to Fort Ticonderoga.  The British, after reaching Crown Point, decide it is too late to begin a siege of Ticonderoga.  Instead, they return to Canada with plans to return in the spring.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Valiant Ambition: George Washington, Benedict Arnold, and the Fate of the American Revolution, by Nathaniel Philbrick.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Based on a True Story Podcast https://www.basedonatruestorypodcast.com

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General Benedict Arnold forces the British fleet to attack him at the location of his choosing, near Valcour Island.  His smaller and less experience force performs well during the battle, but then finds itself trapped by the British.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Battle of Valcour Island: The Participants and Vessels of Benedict Arnold's 1776 Defense of Lake Champlain, by Stephen Darley

Online Recommendation of the Week: Univ. of Groningen American History http://www.let.rug.nl/usa

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After the Continental Army evacuates and the British occupy New York City, a night fire burns a quarter of the town.  The British capture Captain Nathan Hale and hang him as a spy.  The Americans court martial a deserter.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The British Are Coming, by Rick Atkinson

Online Recommendation of the Week: https://jstor.org

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France makes plans for covert aid to America.  Silas Deane arrives to encourage such aid.  French foreign minister puts him in contact with a playwright and part-time arms dealer name Beaumarchais.  The British spy network immediately infiltrate all of this to thwart their plans.  Also, others from America and in France attempt to block the attempt for personal reasons.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Unlikely Allies: How a Merchant, a Playwright, and a Spy Saved the American Revolution, by Joel Richard Paul

Online Recommendation of the Week: https://TheFrenchHistoryPodcast.com

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The British land at Kip's Bay on Manhattan, scattering the patriot defenders.  A few days later, British advance forces run into more effective resistance at Harlem Heights.  While the British capture the island, they allow the Continental army to escape to the north.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Revolution on the Hudson, by George C. Daughan

Online Recommendation of the Week: https://mountvernon.org

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The British spend months putting together a fleet to crush the Americans on Lake Champlain and retake Fort Ticonderoga.  Generals Carleton and Burgoyne do not get along and create a divided command.  Those divisions, however, are nothing compared the divisions on the American site where Generals Schuyler and Gates fight to control the northern Continental Army.  General Arnold also fights with a court martial, which tries to hold him in contempt.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Benedict Arnold's Navy, by James Nelson.

Online Recommendation of the Week: Dispatches Podcast, with Brady Critzer

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After capturing Brooklyn and Long Island General Howe and Admiral Howe halt their military offensive for two weeks.  During that time, they invite three members of the Continental Congress to discuss the possibility of a negotiated peace.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Stop the Revolution: America in the Summer of Independence and the Conference for Peace, by Thomas J. McGuire 

Online Recommendation of the Week: Industrial Revolutions Podcast https://industrialrevolutionspod.com

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The Continental Army attempts to blow up the HMS Eagle in New York Harbor in September 1776.  Using the work of David Bushnell and a small team, attempts to attach an underwater mine after reaching the ship using a one man submarine.  The explosive fails to attach and the mission is a failure.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Turtle: David Bushnell's Revolutionary Vessel, by Roy R. Manstan and Frederic J. Frese

Online Recommendation of the Week: American Heritage https://www.americanheritage.com

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The British land 20,000 men on Long Island.  Using a flanking maneuver, they easily kill, capture, and scatter the inexperienced Americans.  Just as the regulars and Hessians appear to inflict the final death blow, British general Howe calls a halt to the assault.  He fears sending his troops against the dug in Continentals along the East River.  Instead, he opts for a slow advance of digging entrenchments.  The British delay, along with the luck of weather, allows the Americans to escape back to Manhattan Island.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Battle of Brooklyn, 1776, By John J. Gallagher.

Online Recommendation of the Week: American Battlefield Trust https://www.battlefields.org

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British Indian agents encourage the Cherokee to attack the colonies in rebellion.  Cherokee tribes along the western frontiers of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia coordinate their attacks for about the same time the British attack the Carolina coast.  After the British attack founders at Fort Sullivan and they abandon the south, the Americans are able to focus on the Cherokee and the Tories fighting with them.

Fighting is brutal on both sides.  Civilians are murdered.  Men, women, and children are tortured.  Neither side shows much interest in taking prisoners.  After nearly a year of fighting, the Cherokee sue for peace.  A new treaty forces them to give up millions of acres and move further west.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: A Demand of Blood: The Cherokee War of 1776, by Nadia Dean.

Online Recommendation of the Week: https://www.ncpedia.org

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The British get off to a late start, not assembling their massive invasion force at New York until August 1776. When they disembark on Staten Island, the Continentals see the largest overseas military force Britain had ever assembled.

The British fleet sails past ineffective Continental defenses. Admiral Howe attempts to begin peace talks without any luck.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Under the Guns New York 1775-1776, by Bruce Bliven

Online Recommendation of the Week: revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com

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We review the Declaration line by line and explain what it means.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence, by Pauline Maier 

Online Recommendation of the Week: Revolutions Podcast, by Mike Duncan

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The Continental Congress appoints a committee headed by Thomas Jefferson to draft a declaration while debate over independence continues.  After Congress approves the Declaration with modifications, it is distributed to the world, then later signed.

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Book Recommendations of the Week: What Did the Declaration Declare, by Joseph Ellis (ed) &
The Fourth of July and the Founding of America, by Peter de Bolla

Online Recommendation of the Week: Ben Franklin's World Podcast with Liz Covart

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In the spring of 1776, the Second Continental Congress struggles to reach a unanimous vote on independence.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: Signing Their Lives Away, by by Denise Kiernan and Joseph D'Agnese

Online Recommendation of the week: Online Liberty Library oll.libertyfund.org

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Radicals in Philadelphia overthrow the conservative colonial government.  They install radicals just in time to get Pennsylvania to support independence.

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Book Recommendation of the Week: The Revolution Is Now Begun: The Radical Committees of Philadelphia, 1765-1776, by Richard Alan Ryerson 

Online Recommendation of the Week archive.org

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General Henry Clinton and Commodore Peter Parker attempt to capture Fort Sullivan in the harbor of Charleston South Carolina.  Although Continental General Charles Lee attempts to abandon the fort, the fort commander Colonel William Moultrie refuses.  The British fail take the fort and must retreat back to New York without any military success.

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Book Recommendation of the Week Crescent Moon Over Carolina: William Moultrie and American Liberty, by C. L. Bragg, 2013.

Online Recommendation of the Week: www.carolana.com

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General Sullivan takes command in Canada, only to be overwhelmed by the British reinforcements commanded by Generals Carleton and Burgoyne.  The Continentals attack the British at Three Rivers, only to be repelled.  Even more devastating is smallpox still ravaging the army.  With General Arnold's assistance the Army successfully retreats back to New York largely intact.

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Elements of the Continental Navy as well as a hoard of privateers harass and battle with the British Navy up and down the East coast. Naval Commodore John Barry emerges and an early naval hero.

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General Washington struggles to set up defenses in New York despite Tories all around him.  The Continental army riots with NY Prostitutes after they murder two soldiers.  The Army discovers and shuts down a plot to murder Washington ahead of the British invasion.  One soldier is hanged and mayor David Mathews is taken into custody.

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Following the Declaration of Independence, most of the remaining States adopt new Constitutions.  We examine why Massachusetts took so long and why Connecticut and Rhode Island did not even bother with one.

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In 1775 and 1776, even before officially declaring independence, the colonies begin adopting constitutions.  We see many of the principles later found in the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution showing up in these first attempts at self-government.

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General John Thomas takes command of Continental forces around Quebec.  Despite his efforts, the Continentals must withdraw as the British relief fleet arrives in spring 1776.  An American force surrenders to an inferior force at an outpost known as the Cedars, leading to scandal and courts martial.

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In the months between the time the British evacuate Boston and land in New York, Washington had plenty of time to work with his army to build up defenses around New York City and to confer with leaders in Philadelphia.  

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The North Ministry settles on a plan to send an overwhelming force.  They will shock and awe the colonists into submission.  General Howe will command an army of 32,000 regulars and Hessians supported by his brother Admiral Howe commanding over 10,000 sailors and Marines.  A secondary force of 8000 under General Burgoyne will go to Quebec and fall under the command of General Carleton.

The Howe brothers will capture and occupy New York City, then expand out from there.  They also will serve as Peace Commissioners, with limited authority to grant pardons once the rebels submit to proper authority in London.

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Following the failed attempt to take Quebec City, the Continentals keep a token force around the city.  General Benedict Arnold recovers from his wounds while he fights with his fellow officers over what to do next.  General David Wooster pulls rank and takes command of Quebec, forcing Arnold to leave.

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After the Continentals capture Dorchester Heights, the British Army and Navy must leave Boston right away.  Loyalists crowd onto ship and escape to Halifax. Gen. Howe spares the city in exchange for the Continentals not firing on the city or the fleet during the evacuation.

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The Continental Army occupies Dorchester Heights overnight, surprising the British and forcing them to evacuate Boston.

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The Continental Congress builds a small fleet to take on the British Navy.  The new Commander of the Continental Navy begins his command by disobeying orders to confront the British Navy directly.  Instead, he launches a raid on the Bahamas to collect needed arms and ammunition.

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Delegates to the Continental Congress, including conservatives, begin to consider independence as a realistic option.  Lord Drummond sails to Philadelphia in a well-intentioned but poorly conceived attempt to broker a peace deal.  Congress blames General Schuyler for the failures in Canada and moves around some of its generals.  It sends Silas Deane to France to open up diplomatic negotiations with the new King Louis XVI of France.

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General Henry Clinton leaves Boston to secure the southern colonies.  His plan is to meet up with a fleet of regulars coming from Britain under the commend of General Cornwallis.  These regulars will serve as a rally point for loyalists to enlist and reclaim the colonies for the King.

The British send two recruiting officers to western North Carolina, where they raise several thousand recruits.  The Patriots learn of the organization of loyalist regiments.  They send Continentals under Col. James Moore, along with patriot militia to prevent the loyalists from reaching the coast and joining with the regulars.  

The parties meet at Moore's Creek Bridge.  The loyalists attack, but fail and flee.  The patriots capture most of the militia and disperse any loyalists.  When Clinton and Cornwallis arrive in North Carolina, they find nothing but hostile patriot regiments to oppose them.  They give up on North Carolina move on to South Carolina.

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Thomas Paine arrived in America in 1774 with a head full of radical ideas: abolition, women's rights, republicanism, and independence.  This British immigrant was more radical than most Americans.  His publication of Common Sense in January 1776 is widely credited with pushing public opinion in favor of independence.

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General Washington appoints Henry Knox Commander of Artillery.  His first mission is to find some artillery to command.  Knox hauls 59 artillery pieces from Fort Ticonderoga to Boston.  These will prove instrumental in ending the Siege of Boston.

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General Montgomery and Colonel Arnold make a desperate attempt to take Quebec City before their soldiers' enlistments expire at the end of 1775.  Despite a brave attack, the attack fails, leaving the Continental Army in Canada in tatters.

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General Arnold demands the surrender of Quebec, but the last minute arrival of local defenders gives them the courage to hold out.  Arnold pulls back and links up with General Montgomery so that the combined force can assault the city together.

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Virginia Governor Lord Dunmore proclaims that slaves who abandon their rebel masters and join the British army can earn their freedom.  Dunmore attempts to recruit a loyalist army of both black and white Virginians.  He fights a pitched battle at Kemp's Landing and Great Bridge.  Unable to hold land, his forces retreat to ships offshore.  At the end of 1775, the British also burn and abandon Norfolk.

In South Carolina, patriots attack and scatter loyalist militia around Ninty-Six i the western interior.  They also fight with naval forces supporting Royal Governor Campbell in Charleston Harbor.  Patriots succeed in forcing the navy to leave the colony as well.

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Benedict Arnold leads a force across the New England wilderness to attack Quebec from an unexpected direction.  More than half of his force does not make it through the deadly march.

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Congress accepts that it is in for a long term fight.  It creates a Navy and Marine Corps and a southern army.  It explores diplomacy with France and sends a diplomat to work with the Iroquois.  It also recommends that the colonies create forms of government based on the will of the people.  To pay for all this, it prints lots more paper money.

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The British in Boston suffer through a miserable winter.  The Continental Army keeps them stuck in the city.  New England privateers make it extremely difficult to receive food and supplies from the sea.  Hundreds die of disease as everyone suffers greatly.  The British navy does little to provide assistance.  Its destruction of the village of Falmouth only enrages the Americans.

Britain recalls General Gage and Admiral Graves putting General Howe and Admiral Shuldham in charge.

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General Washington gets frustrated by the lack of a plan to attack Boston.  He also squelches his first mutiny. He sends Col. Benedict Arnold to Quebec and Col. Henry Knox to Fort Ticonderoga.  He uncovers a British spy among one of the most trusted patriot leaders.  Most of all he struggles with how to keep the army from going home over the winter.

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Generals Schuyler and Montgomery launch an attack from Fort Ticonderoga into British controlled Canada.  They lay siege Fort St. Jean.  After several months they capture the fort and take prisoner nearly all British regulars in Canada.  Afterwards, the Americans capture Montreal without a fight.

British Commander Guy Carleton dons a disguise and escapes back to Quebec.  He prepares to defend the city against the American forces.

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Over the winter of 1775-76, the Ministry in Britain decides to use overwhelming force to put an end to colonial resistance.  The King refuses to receive the Olive Branch Petition makes clear that he supports Parliament in this fight and calls for the use of force to suppress colonial treason.  He also starts recruiting German speaking mercenaries to supplement the British Army.  The ministry also dumps General Gage and Secretary Dartmouth, replacing them with General Howe and Secretary Germain.  The ministry also implements a blockade of North America.

Meanwhile France begins to pay attention to the rebellion.  It sends its first unofficial envoy to Philadelphia to see if it makes sense to provide some covert assistance.

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Active patriot groups shut down all royal control of all colonies and arrest or expel their royal governors.  The colonies also conduct a raid on Bermuda to acquire more gunpowder for the cause.

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Over the summer of 1775, the southern colonies throw out their royal governments and take control.  Virginians fight off a British raid on Hampton.  Carolinians capture forts and munitions.  The Mecklenburg Resolves declare independence. Georgia patriots fight loyalists for control of the colony.

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In the summer of 1775, after creating a the Continental Army and making Washington its commander, Congress makes one final effort for peace, sending the King the Olive Branch Petition. After that, Congress focuses on the war at hand, drafting a Declaration on the Necessity of Taking up Arms.  It organizes committees to run military affairs and creates a new Post Office.  Congress also rejects Parliament's Conciliatory Proposition before it adjourns for the rest of the summer.

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Newly appointed General George Washington arrives in Cambridge to take command of what is now the Continental Army.  He is shocked by the lack of discipline and the fact that his army has almost no ammunition. He quietly attempts to rebuild his army and collect more arms and ammunition.  His hopes of a quick and successful offensive against the regulars on Boston are quickly dashed. 

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After ferrying thousands of regulars across Boston Harbor, General William Howe begins his attack on Bunker and Breed's Hills late afternoon on the afternoon of June 17, 1775. The regulars launch three bloody assaults to dislodge the provincial troops before the British break the American lines. 

The provincials retreat only after running out of ammunition.  They lose nearly 450 soldiers, including General Joseph Warren.  The British take more than twice that number in casualties, far more than they ever thought the militia could inflict on them. It is the bloodiest day of the war for the British army. The carnage prevents the British from taking any further major offensive operations from Boston. 

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When the Provincials get word that the British plan to occupy the no man's land at Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights, they send Massachusetts and Connecticut militia to build defenses on Bunker Hill.  The soldiers instead build the defenses on Breed's Hill, a smaller hill just next to Bunker Hill.  

The British take most of the following day moving regulars across Boston Harbor to attack the defenses with overwhelming force.  The provincials use the extra time to reinforce and extend their defenses, but get no significant reinforcements all day.  

A cannon duel over the day accomplishes little except to show how amateurish and incompetent the provincial artillery really is.  By late afternoon, British General William Howe is prepared to take the hill with overwhelming force.

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In May 1775, the Second Continental Congress begins after the war has already started.  Delegates must play catch-up.  They have to decide whether they will support the war and what their goals are. 

Delegates agree to send one more petition to the King in hopes of pulling out a peace deal. Most delegates though, realize this is pointless. 

Congress supports the war.  The only debate is whether victory means full independence, or simply a better guarantee of colonial rights. Congress creates a Continental Army and selects Virginia Delegate George Washington to lead it.

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With the British army sitting in Boston, the navy needs to provide supplies and prevent supplies from reaching the Provincials.  An attempt to capture a ship at Buzzard's Bay fails as locals overtake the small British task force and take them prisoner. Similarly, when the British send a ship to protect two merchant vessels providing firewood for Boston, locals again capture the ships.  They kill several of the British and take the rest prisoner.

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Even before word of Lexington and Concord reached London, the Ministry decided they would need to up their game in the colonies.  They did not send Gen. Gage all of the reinforcements he wanted, but they did send some soldiers and marines for the start of the 1775 fighting season.  Along with them, the Ministry sent three new Major Generals to support Gage, traveling together aboard the HMS Cerberus.  All three men, William Howe, Henry Clinton, and John Burgoyne would go on to play larger roles in the War.

General Haldimand received orders at the same time and pack his bags to go home. Because he was senior to all three Major Generals, London did not want this foreign born general to assume command should something happen to General Gage.  The Cerberus also carried news that Admiral Graves received a promotion and would have expanded duties in the colonies.

With the arrival of these new soldiers, London expected more aggressive enforcement of its policies.

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In the first weeks of the Siege of Boston in 1775, the Provincial Army appears to be more of a disorganized mob than an army.  Men do not obey officers.  Units from one colony would not obey orders from another.  No real chain of command exists.  Further, the lack of uniforms, supplies, ammunition, and other logistical problems created their own problems.  Soldiers on both sides begin to die from disease.

The only real fighting at this time is over islands in Boston Harbor that contain food and hay.  The Provincials attempt to remove or destroy items of value on Hog and Noddle Islands.  When the British navy tries to stop them, a small battle leads to several casualties.  The British navy ship Diana gets stuck in the mud during the fight.  Overnight, the Provincials force the crew to abandon ship.  The colonials loot and burn the ship in their first small victory over the navy.

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Following Benedict Arnold and Ethan Allen's capture of Fort Ticonderoga, Arnold seizes several ships and attacks Fort St. Jean in Quebec. With the captured ships, he forms his own navy on Lake Champlain. The British nearly capture Allen as he attempts to follow Arnold's raid and secure the fort. As word of the men's exploits get back to officials in New England and Philadelphia, more moderate politicians replace both officers out of fear that their actions will prevent politicians from negotiating a settlement with London. 

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Benedict Arnold develops a plan to capture Fort Ticonderoga in New York in order to get cannon for Boston. Before leaving for Massachusetts, he tells several men in his home colony of Connecticut about his plan. These Connecticut men organize a force with Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys, who live only a few miles from the fort. Arnold, unaware of this plan, gets approval from the Massachusetts army to raise a force in Western Massachusetts to attack the fort. 

Upon learning that Allen is assembling an attack, Arnold, by himself, rushes to meet Allen's forces and demands to lead them. They refuse, but allow him to come along. The British do not have the fort guarded well, and do not have a large garrison. The Green Mountain Boys easily enter the fort at dawn and capture the garrison without any deaths. Allen and Arnold then fight over command and who deserves credit for the victory.

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For most of the colonial period, slavery is surprisingly uncontroversial.  As the American Revolution begins, colonists start to question the institution of slavery 

In the north broad acceptance of slavery evaporates quickly after Patriots demand that all men are born basic rights to liberty.  Even in the north, slavery would not end for many more years though. 

In the south, where slave are much more critical to the economy, colonists prove unwilling to bend on the issue.  Many in the deep south support the Patriot movement out of concern that Parliament might someday try to emancipate slaves in the British colonies.

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As the Siege of Boston opens in 1775, this episode takes a look at the command structure and life as a British Regular, and compares that to the Provincial army of militiamen around Boston.

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The Siege of Boston begins as soon as the regulars retreat back to Boston following the battles at Lexington and Concord.  The New England Provincial army springs up overnight from minutemen and militia units throughout New England.  In the days that follow, Patriots and regulars record their accounts of the battles.  The Patriots rush their accounts across the continent and over to London, spreading their version of events first.  Word of the fighting encourages Patriots across the continent that it was time to take up arms and go to war.

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By the afternoon of April 19, 1775, having completed his search and destroy mission to Concord. Lt. Col. Smith finds himself facing a twenty mile gauntlet back to Boston. Thousands of angry militia stand ready to attack.  His men are exhausted and running low on ammunition.  His column barely makes it back to Lexington, where Lord Percy's relief column saves them from surrender.  The combined force then faces its own running battle before finally returning to the safety of Charlestown.  

The regulars are impressed by the colonial militia's ability to stand up to them.  Gen. Gage can no longer deploy soldiers from Boston.  His only access in or out is by sea.  The Provincial army grows into the tens of thousands as they lay siege to Boston.

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On the evening of April 18, 1775, Lt. Col. Smith leaves Boston via Charlestown. His goal is to seize and destroy munitions in Concord. Delays prevent his force from leaving Charlestown before Paul Revere and other riders alert the countryside. At around dawn on April 19, the regulars confront a group of militia on Lexington Green. The regulars at Lexington are an advance company led by a young Lieutenant. They fire on the militia before the main column arrives. When Col. Smith arrives, he stops the shooting and restores order. By then, many lay dead and wounded on the Green. Smith reassembles his column which marches on to Concord. 

In Concord, the militia get word of the attack at Lexington and pull back out of town to North bridge. The British arrive and search for munitions. Smith sends a force of light infantry across North bridge to Barrett's mill in search at munitions. While three companies hold North bridge, the militia strike, killing several regulars and retaking the bridge. The British at Barrett's mill are cut off, but manage to cross the bridge anyway, right past the militia, and rejoin the main force in Concord. Smith is now faced with having to march back to Boston through a gauntlet of hostile militia bent on payback.

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As Gen. Gage prepares to deploy a brigade of regulars to Concord, the Patriots activate their warning system.  Joseph Warren deploys William Dawes and Paul Revere to alert countryside.  The riders alert the militia and reach Lexington, while avoiding British patrols.  They warn Samuel Adams and John Hancock at Lexington before continuing their ride.

On the road to Concord, a British patrol captures Revere.  Dawes gets thrown from his horse during his escape.  But a third rider, Samuel Prescott, completes the mission to warn Concord.  The British detain Revere for a while.  They release him near Lexington after hearing gunfire.  Revere returns to Lexington on foot where he helps a dawdling Hancock and Adams get out of town.  Once they are gone, Revere returns again to Lexington where he attempts to secure some of Hancock's secret papers.  While doing so, the British arrive at Lexington Green.  Revere at a distance, hears the first shots of the American Revolution.

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In February 1775, Gage attempts to grab a cache of Patriot cannon in Salem. Col. Alexander Leslie leads a regiment of regulars on what is supposed to be a surprise sail up the coast and a fast dash to Salem to grab the guns.  Alert patriots run ahead of the soldiers and remove the weapons before the regulars arrive.  After a brief standoff, the regulars return to Boston empty handed.

A few weeks later, Boston commemorates the 5th anniversary of the Boston Massacre.  Interaction with soldiers leads to panic and fear of arrest.  As spring approaches, everyone awaits the beginning of the fighting season.  On the eve of war, a majority of the colonies have begun governing themselves under illegal Provincial Congresses.  The separation from Britain widens as London prepares to intervene.

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By the end of 1774 Britain had banned all munitions imports to the colonies.  After fearing that the British Navy might seize munitions at Fort William and Mary in New Hampshire.  Paul Revere rides from Boston to alert the local militia.  The militia attack the fort the following day.  There is an exchange of gunfire, but no one is killed. The militia quickly capture the small garrison, remove the gunpowder, and then release their prisoners to take control of the fort again.

The following day, more militia arrive and decide to take the fort a second time, this time to remove cannon.  The garrison surrenders, under an agreement to release colonial property only.  Once they take the fort, the militia take the cannon and just about anything else of military value that they can carry.  

Although the royal government knows the who led the attack on the King's fort, they are unable to make any arrests.  Patriots have effectively taken control of the colony.

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In late 1774, Prime Minister North calls for early elections. This results in a solid majority in favor of getting tough on the colonies. In reaction to the First Continental Congress' call for economic boycotts, Parliament bans all colonial trade with any country other the Britain. It also passes the "Conciliatory Proposition," allowing colonies to raise taxes in whatever form they like, as long as they come up with as much money as Parliament wants. The Ministry informs Gen. Gage that he is not getting reinforcements. He has nearly 4000 regulars, which should be plenty to handle civilian mobs. He needs to go on the offensive and begin taking decisive action against protesters engaged in treasonous activity.  

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Gen. Gage retreats with his regulars into Boston in the summer of 1774. Patriots take control of all of the rest of Massachusetts. They form their own government, independent of royal authority. The Provincial Congress organizes a militia army, develops minutemen as a rapid reaction force, and names generals, led by Artemas Ward, for its independent army. The Congress also organizes logistics and creates a civilian Committee of Safety to run its military. One of the Committee members, Benjamin Church turns out to be a spy for General Gage, giving Gage an open window into all the Patriot planning and preparation for war. 

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Parliament closed the Port of Boston following the Boston Tea Party. In response, colonial leaders met in Philadelphia in a "Grand Congress." Tories supported the Congress as a way of putting off local talk of boycotts. They hoped emotions would cool after a few months. The Patriots hoped to use the Congress to enact a continent-wide boycott and present a united front in opposition to Parliament. The summer of 1774, brought news of more of London's Coercive Acts. When Congress convened in September, public opinion favored the radicals. Congress issued the Declaration of Rights and Grievances, petitioned the King for repeal of the Coercive Acts, and agreed to a boycott of almost all trade until London met colonial demands.  

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Gov. Gage decides he does not have a large enough army to control the Massachusetts Bay Colony.  The armed colonists who confronted his regulars in the summer of 1774 are too numerous.  Gage barricades his army in Boston and sends frantic letters to London calling for reinforcements.

With that, royal authority over the colony is limited to Boston itself.  Patriots control everything else.  The Suffolk Meeting under Joseph Warren produces a series of resolves on how to handle the current crisis.  The Resolves essentially announce that the Patriots have taken control of the colony and would only return control to London after repeal of the Coercive Acts.

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On September 1, 1774, Gen. Gage sends a regiment to secure gunpowder stored at a powder house several miles from Boston.  The regulars also seize several cannons, returning to Boston with the guns and ammunition.

Rumors spread that the regulars had shot and killed several colonists during the raid.  By the following day, thousands of armed militiamen have gathered outside Boston demanding answers.  The militia eventually go home after learning that no one was killed.  But the event reinforces Gen. Gage's belief that the colonists are ready to start a war at a moment's notice.  The colonists learn they needed a better early warning system to get militia into the field faster.  Both sides continue efforts to secure more arms and ammunition for the coming fight.

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Governor Gage moves the colonial government to Salem and begins enforcing his policy of firmness, ignoring colonial protests and implementing the Coercive Acts.  When the colonists refuse to obey, he attempts to use regulars to shut down a town meeting Salem.   He arrests several leaders who held an illegal town meeting anyway.  When the militia takes up arms to release those arrested, Gage realizes his soldiers could be overwhelmed by the shear numbers of armed militia.  He is shocked by the colonists' refusal to back down in the face of armed regulars.

Gage decides he cannot enforce the law unless London sends him a larger army.  He retreats to Boston and begins writing letters calling for reinforcements.  Meanwhile, patriots shut down the courts and force government officials to resign.  Royal authority in Massachusetts is limited to the isolated town of Boston.

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In late 1774 Governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore leads militia into Western Virginia.  He hopes to stop local tribes who are attacking colonists.  Tribes are upset that colonists are moving into their lands in violation of the King's Proclamation of 1763.

After the Battle of Point Pleasant, Gov. Dunmore forces Chief Cornstalk to sign the Treaty of Camp Charlotte, giving up all claims to land east of the Ohio River.

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Gen. Gage travels to Boston to replace Hutchinson as the new Governor of Massachusetts.  The tough talking Gage had assured officials in London he could use firmness to enforce colonial compliance with the Coercive Acts, most of which were still under debate when he left London.  Gage soon discovers that the threat of force only goads the heavily armed colonists to threaten force of their own.  Gage soon finds himself behind barricades in Boston, having lost control of the rest of the colony.  The Port of Boston is closed, but other changes mandated by London cannot be enforced outside of Boston.

Over the summer and fall of 1774, Massachusetts and the other colonies only hear more news of intolerable acts passed in London.  Calls for cutting off all trade with England entirely leads to the call for a Continental Congress to discuss colonial options in developing a united response.

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In response to the Boston Tea Party, Parliament gets tough by passing several acts designed to punish Massachusetts. The Boston Port Act closes Boston Harbor until the city compensates everyone for damages related to the destruction of tea.  The Government Act gives power to the Crown appointed Governor to fill most government positions and bans town meetings to discuss issues.  The Administration of Justice Acts takes away the colony's right to try soldiers or other officials for murder.  The Quartering Act permits soldiers to take over colonial buildings for their use.  Parliament also passes the Quebec Act, giving Canada control over all disputed lands in the Ohio Valley.

Parliament hopes these laws will show the colonists that they cannot get away with flouting the authority of the King and Parliament.  Colonists must accept Parliament's control or suffer serious economic and political consequences.

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Despite the open destruction of private property, the colonies generally seem to approve of Boston's reaction to the tea ships.  When another tea ship arrives a few months later, locals dump its chests in Boston Harbor as well.  Other towns up and down the coast destroy or force the removal of tea.  Soon, even drinking untaxed tea becomes unacceptable.  Colonists hold tea burnings and refuse to allow anyone to sell or possess tea. 

The immediate reaction in London is that this is completely unacceptable.  It requires more than a criminal investigation.  Rather, the entire colony needs to be punished.  In a stroke of bad timing, London learns of Franklin's release of private letters to Boston radicals months earlier.  The Privy Council summons him and attacks him relentlessly for hours, destroying his reputation in England.

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Parliament tries to win the fight over tariffs by greatly reducing the cost of tea, and maintaining only a nominal three pence per pound tax on tea.  Officials hope the lower prices will end the tea boycott. Radical colonial leaders see this, correctly, as London's attempt to establish that tariffs on imports to raise revenue are legal.

Patriots are caught off guard as the tea arrives only weeks after they learn about the terms. Officials think they have beaten the protesters. Once the ships enter the harbor, the tax must be paid. Otherwise, customs can seize the tea 20 days. On Dec. 16, 1773, the day before the tax is due, colonists dressed as Indians storm the three ships, break open the crates, and dump the tea into the harbor. A crowd of thousands, along with the British army and navy, stand by and watch.

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Episode 039: The Politics of Tea

Originally published April 8, 2018

After several years of calm in the colonies, Parliament changes the way tea is distributed and taxed throughout the Empire.  Mostly, this is an attempt to bail out the East India Company which had too much tea and not enough cash.  The Tea Act of 1773 reduced or eliminated almost all taxes on tea, and also allowed the East India Company to sell tea directly to the colonies, rather than having to go through expensive middlemen.  The result would be a massive drop in the price of tea. 

With all duties eliminated accept for a small 3 pence per pound tarriff, tea in the colonies would be much cheaper than ever before.  But the Sons of Liberty feared this was an effort to break the back of the already failing non-importation agreements.  Once colonies accepted this tiny tariff, the precedent would be set to tax the colonies whenever Parliament wanted.

In late 1773, seven ships loaded with tea headed for Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.  The colonist had barely learned about hte new system before the tea would arrive.  This left everyone guessing what their next step would be.

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After New Hampshire issues thousands of land grants in a disputed region, New York gets the King to declare the land part of the New York colony.  New York then declares all the property owners living on land grants from New Hampshire to be illegal squatters who need to buy their land again or leave.  After legal and political efforts lead nowhere, the land owners with New Hampshire grants form a militia that becomes the Green Mountain Boys.  Ethan Allen becomes the best known leader of the group, using violence and intimidation to force out New York claimants.

Several New York Governors attempt to resolve the problem, but let their own greed in land speculation prevent any fair resolution.  New York attempts to crush the resistance, but events leading to the outbreak of war between England and the colonies prevents any final showdown.  The fight moves into the war itself.

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As events quiet down after 1770, London tries to make many minor behind the scenes changes to the colonial power structure, making it harder for the colonies to resist the next confrontation.  Samuel Adams works with others to set up Committees of Correspondence, so Patriots can keep track of these changes across the colonies and develop strategies to resist.

Also, land speculators attempt to set up a new colony in western lands, reserved by the King for native American tribes.  The attempted land grab leads to the resignation of Lord Hillsborough as Secretary of State for Colonial Affairs and the appointment of Lord Dartmouth to replace him.

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Rhode Island colonists, like just about all other colonists, greatly resented the new tough enforcement of trade laws by British officials.  It made profitable trade virtually impossible.  The HMS Gaspee and its commander Lt. Dudingston developed a reputation for being one of the worst in terms of strict enforcement and poor treatment of civilians.

One night in 1772, the Gaspee ran aground on a sandbar in Naragansett Bay.  That night, locals rowed out to the ship, shot Dudingston, removed the crew, and burned the ship to the waterline.  Officials tried to get tough and ship some of the attackers back to London for a treason trial.  But the colonial code of silence prevented the government from being able to prosecute any of the attackers.

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In both North and South Carolina, colonists on the western frontier run into conflicts with the east coast dominated government.  Westerners in each state form Regulator movements to enforce the law locally as they see fit.  In North Carolina, this leads to open warfare with the colonial government.  Regulators and militia do battle in 1771 near Alamance Creek.

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After British Regulars kill five colonists and injure others at what becomes known as the Boston Massacre, local radicals force the government to relocate the soldiers to Castle Island, out in Boston Harbor.  The Massacre becomes an example for why standing armies should not be maintained among a free people.

For months following, both sides prepare for trials, in which John Adams, among other patriot lawyers, represents the British soldiers.  A jury acquits Captain Preston and five of the seven soldiers involved in the shooting.  The Jury finds two soldiers guilty of manslaughter and had the court brands their thumbs as punishment.

Even before word of the Massacre reaches London, Lord North begins a partial repeal of the Townshend Acts, eliminating most taxes on the colonists.  However, to make a point about Parliament's tax authority, North retains a tax on tea.

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Over the winter of 1769-70, locals in Boston make life as uncomfortable as possible for the British Regulars occupying the city.  Fights break out regularly.  The local courts would not punish locals and the army would not punish soldiers for fighting.  Street brawls become more frequent.  A mob chases customs informer Ebenezer Richardson into his house and threatens his life.  He fires into the crowd, killing a young boy.  

A few weeks later, a British soldier on guard at the Customs House strikes a boy for being insolent.  A mob soon forms, threatening the soldier.  Another squad of soldiers attempts to rescue the guard, but soon finds itself surrounded.  The situation flies out of control and the soldiers fire on the crowd, killing five and wounding several others.

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During the winter of 1769-70, New Yorkers fight with British Regulars.  When New York failed to come up with sufficient money to quarter the soldiers, British Regulars destroy the Liberty Pole.  Isaac Sears, a leader in the local Sons of Liberty Chapter tries to make a citizen's arrest of several soldiers a few days later.  Both sides quickly escalate the event into a massive street brawl involving thousands of soldiers and civilians.  Dozens are wounded.  Both Sears and Alexander McDougall who gets arrested for a pamphlet opposing a tax to pay for the quartering of Regulars in the city, see their profiles rise as leaders of the colonial resistance.  The Sons of Liberty build a new bigger liberty pole.

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Radical John Wilkes returns from France in 1768 to face the charges for seditious libel.  He would spend the next two years in prison, during which time he would be elected to Parliament, which refused to seat him, as well as other government positions.  As much as the King and Parliament hated Wilkes, the people of England loved him as a defender of liberty.  The colonists also took up Wilkes as a hero of the fight for liberty. 

As the sides harden between Parliament and the colonies. Prime Minister Grafton sees no route for a compromise that will resolve the disputes and resigns.  Lord North, a hardliner, becomes the new Prime Minister.

During this same period, different Sons of Liberty organizations are attempting to maintain nonimportation agreements against London and prevent customs enforcement.  They begin using the practice of tarring and feathering customs informers or low level customs officials in order to prevent effective enforcement of British trade laws.

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With officials in Boston unable to control the people and enforce the law, Secretary of State Hillsborough decides enough is enough and orders four regiments of British regulars to occupy the town.  Radical colonists debate resisting the troops by force of arms, but decide in the end to back down.  Instead, they simply send protests to London.  Locals harass the soldiers at every opportunity, and make the occupation as difficult as possible.  The Navy attempts to impress (force) local sailors into the fleet, leading to the death of a British officer from those resisting impressment. Gov. Bernard is recalled to London and will never return, leaving Lt. Governor Hutchinson in charge.  Leading radical James Otis suffers an attack that leads to mental instability and his eventual withdrawal from politics.

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The American Board of Customs arrives in Boston in 1767 ready to enforce the new Townshend duties.  With the backing of the British Navy, the Board tries to show who is boss by seizing a ship belonging to the wealthiest merchant in Boston and a leader of the tax protests, John Hancock.  The seizure of Hancock's ship Liberty results in a riot and the beatings of several customs officials.  The Board learns that they are not the boss and must flee to Castle William, an island in Boston Harbor, to avoid further attacks.  Tough enforcement of customs laws comes to a halt.

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Following passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767, the colonists are unsure how to respond. These are import tariffs, not taxes, which was the line they drew over the earlier Stamp Act. They don't want to pay but have trouble articulating a good argument that everyone accepts.

John Dickinson writes a series of 12 letters, purportedly from "a farmer in Pennsylvania" explaining why these new laws are just as objectionable. His letters push the colonists into real opposition to the new laws. British attempts to shut down the protests by force, only make things worse.

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Prime Minister William Pitt's illness prevents him from running his administration.  The Duke of Grafton becomes acting Prime Minister for over a year and eventually take the office officially when Pitt resigns in 1768.  Although Grafton is a moderate on colonial issues, he moves hardliners like Lord North and the Earl of Hillsborough into his cabinet.  The Ministry also adds to the Townshend Acts by creating several new Admiralty Courts in America to enforce the Townshend Acts and other customs laws.  With tough enforcement, they hope the colonies will fall in line.

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William Pitt, champion of colonial rights, finally becomes Prime Minister in 1766. Illness however, keeps him from active participation in the government. His Lord of the Exchequer Charles Townsend tries to boost revenue by increasing tariffs on a wide variety of colonial imports. While avoiding direct taxes, the new laws are designed to extract money from the colonies as well as increase enforcement actions. Townshend hopes to introduce colonial compliance to Parliament slowly with this first step.

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Following the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766, colonial protests stopped and trade resumed.  Parliament is not happy about the push-back and seems determined to find a way to put the colonies in their place.  The colonies are unhappy about the Declaratory Act and Parliament's assertion of complete tax authority over the colonies, despite a lack of colonial representation in Parliament.  The colonists and the English people begin to view their interests as in competition with one another.

During this time, many small issues push colonial interests further from those in England.  The death of John Robinson in Virginia reveals a major financial scandal that creates a colonial cash shortage.  Parliament passes the Free Port Act, attempting to give trade advantages to London over the colonies.  A New York assault case Forsey v. Cunningham threatens the right of jury trials.  Bostonians get into a big fight over search warrants.  New Yorkers refuse to pay Quartering Act costs for British regulars in the colony.

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The Stamp Act took effect on November 1, 1765.  But colonial opposition prevented the use of any stamps.  Protesters forced newspapers, courts, and ports to operate without stamped paper.  Creditors could not go to court to collect on debts and trading vessels stop going to England.  As a result, English merchants joined in opposition to the Act.

Prime Minister Rockingham replaced Grenville and immediately set about to repeal the law.  The problem was, Parliament did not want to look like it was backing down in the face of mob violence, or sending the message that it accepts colonial assertions that Parliament cannot impose taxes on the colonies.  After months of wrangling and infighting, King George let it be known that he supports the repeal.  Parliament passed the repeal, but on the same day also passes the Declaratory Act which says Parliament still has the authority to pass such laws whenever it wants.  

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Colonists at all levels of society protested the Stamp Act of 1765.  Newspapers railed against it.  Mobs marched in the streets, and destroyed the  homes of tax agents and other supporters.  Colonial politicians not only spoke out against the Act but organized the Stamp Act Congress to coordinate a unified response to this tax.  At issue was "taxation without representation."  Parliament, for the first time, was imposing a direct tax on the colonists, even though they had no representation in Parliament.  

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In 1765 Prime Minister Grenville led passage of the Stamp Act through Parliament.  He designed the tax on newspapers, legal documents and a host of other paper to collect revenues from the colonies.  Although some radical Whigs like William Pitt opposed the new taxes, the law sailed through Parliament with relative ease.  Parliament wanted to pay off its war debt and thought the colonies needed to contribute more.  To help with enforcement, Parliament also passed the Quartering act, forcing colonies to pay for housing for soldiers in their colonies.

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Following the passage of the Sugar Act in 1764, the British colonies in North America begin to organize opposition.  The new taxes and trade enforcement policies hits the colonies just when they are experiencing other economic problems.  Britain's removal of war subsidies leads to growing unemployment and a general lack of jobs.  The Currency Act contributes to existing money shortages.   The Wheelwright Scandal makes all of this worse.  British restrictions on western lands cuts off a traditional economic resource.

The colonies send petitions to London protesting the changes.  They also begin writing editorials and circulating pamphlets among themselves as they start to organize colonial opposition.  British customs officials face opposition at all levels as they attempt to enforce the law.

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In 1764, with Britain under a massive debt from the Seven Years War and with increased costs of maintaining its new colonies, the Grenville Ministry passes the Sugar Act to raise revenue from the colonists.  The Act itself actually cuts tariff rates, but also institutes enforcement measures to ensure the colonists cannot evade the taxes as easily as they did in the past.  Parliament also passes the Quartering Act, to make colonies pay for the quartering of British Regulars within their borders, whether they are there to protect the colonists or to enforce tariff and trade laws.

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In 1764, in response to the Native American attacks known as Pontiac's War, the colonists strike back at the Indians, killing the guilty and innocent alike.  Gen. Amherst approves use of smallpox against the Indians. He proposes a campaign of terror and slaughter against the tribes.  At the insistence of Indian agent Sir William Johnson, London recalls Amherst, leaving Gen. Thomas Gage in charge.  Gage follows through on Amherst's attack plan, sending out two expeditions to destroy Indian villages and kill anyone they find, taking no prisoners.

By the time the expeditions leave in the summer of 1764, the leaders find almost all tribes ready to settle.  Indian attempts to bring the French back into the fight have failed.  Most Chiefs realize they cannot continue the war.  The Treaty of Niagara returns the Seneca to peace.  Other tribes request diplomatic negotiations, eventually resulting in the Treaty of Fort Ontario in 1766.  This Treaty recognizes British rule as far west as the Mississippi River.

Meanwhile, King George III issues the Royal Proclamation of 1763, requiring all British colonial settlements to remain east of the Allegheny mountains, thus forbidding westward colonial expansion.  The colonists strongly oppose this restriction.

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By 1763, France has left Canada after losing the the French and Indian war.  British soldiers and colonists continue to occupy land west of the Allegheny mountains in violation of promises.  To save money, Britain stops making annual gifts to the tribes. The Indian tribes unite and rise up against these continuing violations of treaties.  The tribes sieze mulitple forts and besiege others.  Soldiers and colonists hunker down in forts, flee the region, or die horrible deaths.

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As the Seven Years War comes to an end, Britain and her colonies begin bickering over issues unrelated to the war.  In Virginia, a new lawyer named Patrick Henry convinces a jury not to pay ministers the wage required under the law.  The Archbishop of Canterbury is thwarted in his attempts to force New England to accept an Anglican Bishop.  James Otis Jr. becomes an early advocate against the enforcement of trade tariffs through the use of general warrants.

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The French try for one last land claim in North America at the Battle of Signal Hill.  Following the end of combat, the British army in America shrinks, removing men and money from the colonies.  Britain finally ends the Seven Years War with France and Spain through the Treaty of Paris in 1763.  British politician John Wilkes learns the hard way that although the King has gotten involved in politics, you cannot criticize the King like any other politician.  He goes on to become a hero for the cause of British liberties.

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The Cherokee go to war against the settlers in the Carolinas who are encroaching on their land.  Britain captures French colonies in the West Indies (what we today call the Caribbean).  Newcastle and Pitt leave the government as the Earl of Bute takes charge.  Spain finally joins France in the war against Britain, only to lose some of its own colonies.

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The British Army in America captures the final concentration of French forces at Montreal in 1760.  This effectively ends major combat operations in North America.  With the death of his grandfather, 22 year old King George III claims the throne.

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British Gen. Wolfe defeats French Gen. Montcalm on the Plains of Abraham in 1759.  The British capture the key city of Quebec.

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After convincing most Indians to abandon the French in the Ohio Valley, the British take Fort Duquesne at the end of 1758.  Gen. Amherst takes command of British forces for the 1759 fighting season, capturing Forts Niagara and Carillion as well.  Fort Duquesne becomes Fort Pitt.  Fort Carillion becomes Fort Ticonderoga.

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